Chapter 1:
- When the Lateral Hypothalamus is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger.
- When the VentroMedial Hypothalamus is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry.
- When the Anterior hypothalamus is destroyed, one is Asexual.
Destruction of basal ganglia = Parkinson's Disease
Order from Anterior to Posterior:
Primary Motor Cortex = Pre-central Gyrus
Central Sulcus
Primary Somatosensory Cortex = Post-central Gyrus
*Usually the left hemisphere of the brain is the dominant hemisphere
Association areas = Complex tasks
Projection areas = Rudimentary tasks
The Moro reflex is when infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying.
The Babinski reflex causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated.
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Chapter 2:
Thresholds can also be called limina. (subliminal threshold)
Weber's Law - There is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just-noticable-difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus.
Catch trials = Trials in which the signal is presented
Noise trials = Trials in which the signal is not presented.
Eyes: (REVIEW MORE!)
Cones are for Color vision
Rods are used in reduced light
Pacinian corpuscles: Respond to deep pressure and vibration
Meissner corpuscles: Respond to light touch
Merkle discs: Respond to deep pressure and texture
Ruffini endings: Respond to stretch
Free nerve endings: Respond to pain and temperature
Physiological Zero - Normal temperature of the skin
Bottom-up (data-driven) processing - Refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection.
Top-down (conceptually driven) processing - Is driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object and then recognize the components based on these expectations.
"When we believe we are experiencing something for the first time, we expect to rely on bottom-up processing; however, when the mind finds that it is able to recognize an experience more quickly than expected (through top-down processing), it searches for a reason for this recognition. In other words, deja vu is often evoked when we have recognition without an obvious reason."
Subjective contours - Perceiving shapes where there are no shapes. (As shown below)
Law of pragnanz - Says that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible.
Know the difference between the law of proximity, similarity and good continuation. These are gestalt principles.
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Chapter 3:
Operant Condition: (from fastest to slowest)
Variable Ratio (VR = Very Fast)
Fixed Ratio
Variable Interval
Fixed Interval
The peg-word system associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers. one with sun, two with shoe, three with tree etc.
Prospective Memory - Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future.
Korsakoff's Syndrome (or Wernicke-korsakoff syndrome) - Form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain.
Confabulation - The process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories.
Proactive interference - When old information is interfering with new learning
Retroactive interference - When new information causes forgetting of old information
Agnosia - Loss of the ability to recognize objects people or sounds, though usually only one of the three. Usually caused by physical damage to the brain.
Synaptic Pruning - As time passes, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information.
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Chapter 4:
Object permanence marks the beginning of representational thought.
Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor - 0-2yrs, starts with Primary and Secondary Circular Reactions (repetitive body movement, and repetitive responses from the environment, such as dropping a toy multiple times), and ends with object permanence.
- Preoperational - 2-7yrs, egocentrism, centration (focusing on one aspect of a phenomenon), and an inability to understand conservation.
- Concrete Operational - 7-11, understanding of conservation, considers the perspective of others
- Formal Operational - 11+, ability to think about abstract ideas
Lev Vygotsky - Said that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of her culture, which includes societal rules, symbols and language.
Crystallized intelligence = School
Fluid intelligence = Street smarts
Delirium - Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes. "an acutely disturbed state of mind that occurs in fever, intoxication, and other disorders and is characterized by restlessness, illusions, and incoherence of thought and speech."
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
Reticular formation - a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness. Damage to this part of the brain/structure results in a coma.
Dreams:
Activation-synthesis theory - Dreams are for a bunch of neural activation
Problem-solving dream theory - Dreams are for solving problems in new ways
Most sleep disorders occur in NREM sleep.
Dysomnias - Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep
Parasomnia - Abnormal movements during sleep, might include terrors and sleepwalking
Narcolepsy - Spontaneous sleep
Cataplexy- Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours. Symptom of narcolepsy.
Sleep apnea - Inability to breathe during sleep
Sleep deprivation leads to REM rebounds.
Drug addiction associated with the mesolimbic reward pathway.
Pragmatics - Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Pragmatics are affected by prosody, which is the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.
People like Noam Chomsky made the nativist (biological) theory of language, which means that children have an innate capacity for language. He focused on transformational grammar which focuses on the word order of a language whilst retaining the same meaning. This innate ability is called a language acquisition device (LAD).
Learning (behaviorist) theory = B.F. Skinner, a.k.a language acquisition through operant conditioning.
Social interactionist theory - language development focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes.
Whorfian hypothesis/linguistic relativity hypothesis - suggests that our perception of reality - the way we think about the world - is determined by the content of our language.
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Chapter 5:
Extrinsic motivation - Includes rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved.
Intrinsic motivation- Motivation that comes from within oneself
Yerkes-Dodson Law:
Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs:
- Physiological - Breathing food, water, sex, sleep etc.
- Safety - Security of body, employment, resources etc.
- Love/Belonging - Friendship, family, sexual intimacy etc.
- Esteem - Confidence, achievement, respect by others etc.
- Self-Actualization - Morality, creativity, problem-solving etc.
Incentive theory - Behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by desire to pursue rewards and the avoid punishments.
Expectancy-value theory - States that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which she values succeeding at the goal.
Opponent-process theory - This theory explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology. These effects last longer than the drug. For example, the withdrawal symptoms of alcohol, a depressant, will be anxiety and jitteriness etc.
Universal Emotions:
- Happiness
- Sadness
- Contempt
- Surprise
- Fear
- Disgust
- Anger
James-Lange theory of emotion - A stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled.
-Nervous system arousal
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion - Physiological arousal and feeling an emotion occur at the same time, not in sequence.
-Nervous system arousal + conscious emotion
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion - Both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced. I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy.
-Nervous system arousal + cognitive appraisal
Left pre-frontal cortex - Associated with positive emotions
Right pre-frontal cortex - Associated with emotions
Dorsal pre-frontal cortex - Associated with attention and cognition
Ventral pre-frtonal cortex - Associated with emotion
Ventromedial pre-frontal cortex- Thought to play a substantial role in decision-making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala
Cognitive appraisal - Subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.
Primary appraisal - Initial evaluation of the associated stress, which identifies it as irrelevant, benign, positive, or stressful.
Secondary appraisal - Evaluation of one's ability to cope with the stress.
Distress = Negative
Eustress = Positive
This graph stages the sequence of physiological responses to stress, called General Adaptation Syndrome.
Resistance = Fighting the stressor, through SNS activation
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Chapter 6:
Androgyny - Simultaneously being very masculine and feminine
Heirarchy of salience - We let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.
Self-discrepancy theory - Three selves:
- Actual self
- Ideal self
- Ought self
Self efficacy - Belief in our ability to succeed.
Learned helplessness - Is behavior typical of an organism (human or animal) that has endured repeated painful or otherwise aversive stimuli which it was unable to escape or avoid. After such experience, the organism often fails to learn escape or avoidance in new situations where such behavior would be effective.
Freud: Psychosexual Development:
"Fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development. In response to the anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as a neurosis."
- Oral stage - 0-1, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting and sucking.
- Anal stage - 1-3, libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials. Fixation on this stage would lead to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentive) or sloppiness in the adult.
- Oedipal stage (or phallic stage) - 3-5, centers on resolution of the oedipal conflict for male children, or the analogous electra conflict for female children. In Freud's view, the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands. He is guilty for wishing to eliminate the father, so to cope, he identifies with his father instead, and establishes his sexual identity, and internalizes his moral values. Girls are thought to have penis envy.
- Latency - From the end of oedipal stage to the beginning of puberty, characterized by the elimination of the libido.
- Genital stage - Beginning in puberty and lasting through adulthood, if prior development has proceeded correctly, the person should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships at this point. However, if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved, such behaviors as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism may result.
Erikson: Psychosocial Development:
- Trust vs Mistrust - 0-1, if mistrust wins, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout his life
- Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt - 1-3, is shame and doubt wins, then there is a persistent external locus of control. (attributing failures and non-failures to external factors)
- Initiative vs Guilt - 3-6, if guilt wins, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child will restrict himself, or overcompensate by showing off.
- Industry vs Inferiority - 6-12, confidence in abilities vs low self-esteem
- Identity vs Role confusion - 12-20 evident.
- Intimacy vs Isolation - 20-40, evident
- Generativity vs Stagnation - 40-65, productive member of society vs. not caring for others at all
- Integrity vs Despair - 65+, wisdom vs regret
Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning:
6 Stages:
Preconventional Morality: Pre-adolescent thinking
-Obedience (1) and Self-Interest (2)
Conventional Morality: Early adolescent thinking
-Conformity (3) and Law and Order (4)
Postconventional Morality: Reasoning that not everyone is capable of, and is based on social mores.
-Social Contract (5) and Universal Human Ethics (6)
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The primary process is the id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later.
Repression = Unconscious
Suppression = Conscious
Regression = Returning to an earlier stage of development
Reaction formation - An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite. Example: Two coworkers fight all the time because they are actually very attracted to each other.
Anima - "A man's inner woman"
Animus - "A woman's inner man"
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) - 16 personality types
Adler:
Inferiority Complex - An individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority both physically and socially.
Fictional Finalism - The notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences.
The Big Five Traits of Personality: OCEAN
Persistent depressive disorder - Given to patients who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode.
Acronym for symptoms of major depressive episode: SIG E. CAPS - Sadness +
Reaction formation - An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite. Example: Two coworkers fight all the time because they are actually very attracted to each other.
Anima - "A man's inner woman"
Animus - "A woman's inner man"
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) - 16 personality types
Adler:
Inferiority Complex - An individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority both physically and socially.
Fictional Finalism - The notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences.
The Big Five Traits of Personality: OCEAN
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
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Chapter 7:
Delusions of reference - Belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual
Delusions of persecution - Belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against, or threatened
Delusions of grandeur - Common in bipolar I disorder, involve the belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way, such as being an inventor, historical figure, or religious icon.
Thought broadcasting - The belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world
Thought insertion - Belief that thoughts are being placed in one's head
Persistent depressive disorder - Given to patients who suffer from dysthymia, a depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode.
Acronym for symptoms of major depressive episode: SIG E. CAPS - Sadness +
- Sleep
- Interest
- Guilt
- Energy
- Concentration
- Appetite
- Psychomotor Symptoms
- Suicidal Thoughts
Bipolar I = Manic episodes +/- major depressive episodes
Bipolar II = Hypomania + at least one major depressive episode
Theory: Too much norepinephrine + serotonin = Mania. Too little = Depression
Dissociative amnesia - Amnesia NOT due to a neurological disorder
Three W's of Personality disorders:
Dissociative amnesia - Amnesia NOT due to a neurological disorder
Three W's of Personality disorders:
- Weird
- Wild
- Worried
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Chapter 8:
Social facilitation = People perform better on simple tasks in the presence of others.
Social loafing = People put in less effort in a group setting than individually
Primary socialization = Occurs in childhood, learning acceptable actions and attitudes in society.
Secondary socialization = Learning appropriate behavior w/in smaller sections of society, outside of the home.
Norms = Societal rules
Mores = Observed social norms (ex: not driving 90mph on an residential area) (type of norm)
Folkway = Norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular contexts, (ex: shaking hands after a sports match)
Mores are more important than folkways.
Mores = Observed social norms (ex: not driving 90mph on an residential area) (type of norm)
Folkway = Norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular contexts, (ex: shaking hands after a sports match)
Mores are more important than folkways.
Differential association theory = Deviance can be learned through interactions with others.
Compliance Techniques:
Foot-in-the-door Technique = Small requests made, and after compliance, larger requests made.
Door-in-the-face Technique = Large requests made, after non-compliance, smaller requests made.
Lowball Technique = Requester will obtain initial commitment from someone, and then raise the cost of the commitment.
That's-not-all Technique = Get this for $19.99, but if you call in the next 5 minutes. . .
Elaboration likelihood model - Separates individuals based on their processing of persuasive information. Those who scrutinize deeply, or central route processing. Then there are those who focuse on superficial details, those who do not elaborate, or peripheral route processing.
Social Cognitive Theory - People learn how to behave by watching others.
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Chapter 9:
Appraisal model vs. Social Construction Model = Theories of emotion
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Chapter 10:
Note the difference between stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination.
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Chapter 11:
Manifest function - Action intended to help some part of a system
Latent function - Actions that have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society.
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Chapter 12:
Plutocracy - Rule by the upper classes.
Compliance Techniques:
Foot-in-the-door Technique = Small requests made, and after compliance, larger requests made.
Door-in-the-face Technique = Large requests made, after non-compliance, smaller requests made.
Lowball Technique = Requester will obtain initial commitment from someone, and then raise the cost of the commitment.
That's-not-all Technique = Get this for $19.99, but if you call in the next 5 minutes. . .
Elaboration likelihood model - Separates individuals based on their processing of persuasive information. Those who scrutinize deeply, or central route processing. Then there are those who focuse on superficial details, those who do not elaborate, or peripheral route processing.
Social Cognitive Theory - People learn how to behave by watching others.
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Chapter 9:
Appraisal model vs. Social Construction Model = Theories of emotion
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Chapter 10:
Note the difference between stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination.
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Chapter 11:
Manifest function - Action intended to help some part of a system
Latent function - Actions that have unintended positive consequences on other parts of society.
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Chapter 12:
Plutocracy - Rule by the upper classes.
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